Pasteurella trehalosi Septicemia in Young Sheep and Bighorn: Etiology, Pathogenesis, and Diagnostic Approaches

Etiology

Pasteurella trehalosi is a Gram-negative, non-motile, facultatively anaerobic coccobacillus belonging to the family Pasteurellaceae. The organism was formerly classified as Pasteurella haemolytica biotype T (trehalose-fermenting) before being reclassified as a distinct species based on DNA-DNA hybridization and 16S rRNA sequencing. The species is characterized by its ability to ferment trehalose, a disaccharide that distinguishes it from Pasteurella multocida and other Pasteurella species. P. trehalosi is a primary pathogen of sheep and goats and is also isolated from wild ruminants, including bighorn sheep (Ovis canadensis).

The bacterium produces a leukotoxin (Lkt) belonging to the RTX (repeats in toxin) family, which is a critical virulence factor. This leukotoxin is cytolytic for ovine and bovine leukocytes, including neutrophils, macrophages, and lymphocytes. The toxin is encoded by the lktCABD operon and is regulated by iron concentration and growth phase. P. trehalosi also expresses a polysaccharide capsule that inhibits phagocytosis and complement-mediated opsonization. Additional virulence factors include fimbriae for adhesion to respiratory epithelium, iron acquisition systems (e.g., transferrin-binding proteins), and lipopolysaccharide (LPS) that contributes to endotoxic shock during septicemia.

Epidemiology

Pasteurella trehalosi is a commensal organism of the upper respiratory tract and tonsillar crypts of healthy sheep and goats. Carriage rates in clinically normal flocks can exceed 50 percent. Disease occurs when host defenses are compromised by stress, viral infection, or environmental factors. The primary disease manifestation in young sheep is septicemia, often referred to as systemic pasteurellosis or "pasteurella trehalosi septicaemia young sheep bighorn" in the literature.

In domestic sheep, disease typically affects lambs between 3 and 10 months of age, with peak incidence during weaning, transport, or adverse weather. Outbreaks are more common in intensively managed flocks. In bighorn sheep, P. trehalosi is a significant cause of mortality, particularly in lambs and yearlings. Transmission occurs via direct contact, aerosolized respiratory droplets, and fomites. Stressors such as handling, nutritional deficiency, and concurrent infection with respiratory viruses (e.g., parainfluenza-3 virus, ovine adenovirus) predispose animals to disease.

The epidemiology in bighorn sheep is complicated by interactions with domestic sheep. Contact between domestic and wild sheep can lead to pathogen spillover, with P. trehalosi causing severe outbreaks in naive bighorn populations. Bighorn sheep appear to be more susceptible to P. trehalosi septicemia than domestic sheep, possibly due to differences in leukotoxin receptor expression or immune naivety.

Clinical Signs

The clinical presentation of P. trehalosi septicemia is acute to peracute. In peracute cases, animals are found dead without premonitory signs. In acute cases, clinical signs develop rapidly over 12 to 48 hours and include:

• Fever (40.5 to 42.0 degrees Celsius)
• Depression and lethargy
• Anorexia
• Tachypnea and dyspnea
• Nasal discharge, initially serous then mucopurulent
• Salivation and frothing at the mouth
• Submandibular edema
• Petechial hemorrhages on mucous membranes
• Sudden death

In less acute cases, lambs may exhibit lameness due to polyarthritis, as the organism localizes in joints. Neurologic signs such as ataxia, head pressing, and convulsions can occur secondary to meningitis or cerebral edema. In bighorn sheep, the disease is often peracute, with mortality rates exceeding 80 percent in affected cohorts.

Pathology

Gross pathological findings in P. trehalosi septicemia are characteristic of a systemic bacterial infection. The most consistent lesions include:

• Fibrinous pleuropneumonia: The lungs are congested, edematous, and exhibit cranioventral consolidation. Fibrin strands are present on pleural surfaces, and the interlobular septa are distended with edema fluid.
• Petechial and ecchymotic hemorrhages: These are found on the epicardium, endocardium, thymus, and serosal surfaces of abdominal organs.
• Splenomegaly: The spleen is enlarged, dark, and congested.
• Hepatic congestion and necrosis: The liver is friable with a nutmeg appearance. Focal necrotic foci may be visible.
• Lymphadenopathy: Mediastinal and bronchial lymph nodes are enlarged, edematous, and hemorrhagic.
• Gastrointestinal congestion: The abomasal and intestinal mucosa are hyperemic with petechiae.
• Polyarthritis: In subacute cases, joints contain increased turbid synovial fluid with fibrin clots.

Histopathological examination reveals necrotizing bronchopneumonia with alveolar flooding by fibrin, neutrophils, and macrophages. Intravascular thrombi are common in pulmonary capillaries. Leukocytolysis is evident in lymphoid tissues and inflammatory exudates. Immunohistochemistry can demonstrate P. trehalosi antigen within alveolar macrophages and vascular endothelium.

Diagnostics

Definitive diagnosis of Pasteurella trehalosi septicemia requires isolation and identification of the organism from blood, lung, or other parenchymal tissues. The diagnostic workflow is outlined below.

Sample Collection

Samples should be collected aseptically from freshly dead animals (less than 6 hours postmortem) or from live animals with clinical signs. Preferred specimens include:

• Lung tissue (from the margin of consolidated and normal lung)
• Whole blood (for culture and PCR)
• Synovial fluid (from affected joints)
• Nasal swabs (for carrier detection)
• Spleen and liver (for septicemic cases)

Culture and Isolation

P. trehalosi grows on blood agar and chocolate agar under aerobic conditions with 5 percent carbon dioxide. Colonies are smooth, gray, and non-hemolytic or weakly alpha-hemolytic after 24 hours at 37 degrees Celsius. The organism is oxidase-positive, catalase-positive, and ferments trehalose but not lactose or arabinose. Biochemical identification can be performed using commercial identification systems, though these may misidentify P. trehalosi as P. haemolytica if trehalose fermentation is not specifically tested.

Molecular Diagnostics

Polymerase chain reaction (PCR) assays targeting the lktA gene (leukotoxin) or the 16S rRNA gene provide rapid and specific identification. Real-time PCR (qPCR) allows quantification of bacterial load. PCR can be performed on DNA extracted from tissue homogenates, blood, or nasal swabs. Multiplex PCR panels can differentiate P. trehalosi from P. multocida and Mannheimia haemolytica.

Serology

Serological testing is not routinely used for individual diagnosis but can be applied for flock-level surveillance. Enzyme-linked immunosorbent assays (ELISA) detecting antibodies against P. trehalosi leukotoxin or whole-cell antigens are available. A four-fold rise in antibody titer between acute and convalescent sera supports recent infection.

Differential Diagnosis

The differential diagnosis for acute septicemia in young sheep includes:

• Mannheimia haemolytica septicemia
• Pasteurella multocida infection
• Clostridium perfringens type D enterotoxemia (pulpy kidney disease)
• Escherichia coli septicemia
• Salmonella spp. septicemia
• Histophilus somni infection
• Mycoplasma ovipneumoniae pneumonia

The following Mermaid diagram illustrates the diagnostic decision tree for suspected P. trehalosi septicemia.

flowchart TD
    A[Clinical signs: fever, dyspnea, sudden death in young sheep], > B{Postmortem examination}
    B, > C[Gross lesions: fibrinous pleuropneumonia, petechiae, splenomegaly]
    C, > D[Collect lung, blood, spleen, synovial fluid]
    D, > E{Culture on blood agar}
    E, > F[Gray, non-hemolytic colonies]
    F, > G[Gram-negative coccobacilli]
    G, > H[Biochemical tests: oxidase +, catalase +, trehalose +]
    H, > I[PCR for lktA gene]
    I, > J[Positive: Pasteurella trehalosi confirmed]
    E, > K[No growth or mixed flora]
    K, > L[PCR on tissue homogenate]
    L, > M[Positive: P. trehalosi DNA detected]
    L, > N[Negative: consider other pathogens]
    J, > O[Diagnosis: P. trehalosi septicemia]
    N, > P[Differential: M. haemolytica, P. multocida, Clostridium spp.]

Treatment

Antimicrobial therapy should be initiated promptly in affected animals and in-contact flockmates. Selection of antimicrobials should be guided by culture and susceptibility testing due to regional variation in resistance patterns. Commonly used antimicrobials include:

• Oxytetracycline: 10 mg/kg intramuscularly or intravenously every 24 hours for 3 to 5 days.
• Florfenicol: 20 mg/kg intramuscularly every 48 hours for 3 doses.
• Tulathromycin: 2.5 mg/kg subcutaneously as a single dose.
• Ceftiofur: 1 to 2 mg/kg intramuscularly every 24 hours for 3 to 5 days.
• Trimethoprim-sulfadiazine: 15 mg/kg subcutaneously every 24 hours for 3 to 5 days.

Supportive care includes non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (e.g., flunixin meglumine at 2.2 mg/kg intravenously) to reduce fever and inflammation, fluid therapy for dehydrated animals, and provision of a stress-free environment. In outbreak situations, mass medication via feed or water may be considered, though this approach is less reliable due to variable intake in sick animals.

Control and Prevention

Control of P. trehalosi septicemia relies on reducing stress, optimizing nutrition, and implementing vaccination programs.

Management Practices

• Minimize stress during weaning, transport, and handling.
• Provide adequate ventilation in housing to reduce respiratory pathogen load.
• Avoid mixing lambs from different sources.
• Ensure colostrum intake in neonates to provide passive immunity.
• Quarantine new additions to the flock for at least 30 days.

Vaccination

Commercial bacterin-toxoid vaccines containing P. trehalosi and M. haemolytica antigens are available. These vaccines are administered subcutaneously in two doses, 3 to 4 weeks apart, with a booster before anticipated stress periods. Vaccination of ewes pre-lambing enhances colostral antibody transfer to lambs. In bighorn sheep, vaccination is logistically challenging but has been attempted in captive populations. Efficacy in wild populations is variable and requires further study.

Biosecurity

For operations at the domestic-wild sheep interface, biosecurity measures are critical. These include preventing direct contact between domestic and bighorn sheep, avoiding grazing on shared ranges during high-risk periods, and reporting unusual mortality events in wild populations to wildlife authorities.

Public Health Considerations

Pasteurella trehalosi is not considered a significant zoonotic pathogen. Human infections are extremely rare and typically occur in immunocompromised individuals following animal bites or close contact. Standard hygiene precautions are sufficient for personnel handling infected animals or tissues.

Conclusion

Pasteurella trehalosi septicemia remains a significant cause of morbidity and mortality in young domestic sheep and bighorn sheep populations. The disease is characterized by acute fibrinous pleuropneumonia and systemic vascular injury driven by leukotoxin and endotoxin release. Rapid diagnosis through culture, PCR, and postmortem examination is essential for implementing timely treatment and control measures. Management strategies focusing on stress reduction, vaccination, and biosecurity are critical for reducing disease incidence. Continued surveillance at the domestic-wildlife interface is necessary to mitigate spillover events and conserve vulnerable bighorn sheep populations.

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